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[infowar.de] Cyberspace as a Combat Zone: The Phenomenon of Electronic Jihad
VISIT THE NEW MEMRI BLOG AT www.thememriblog.org
Inquiry & Analysis-Jihad & Terrorism Studies Project
February 27, 2007
No. 329
Cyberspace as a Combat Zone: The Phenomenon of Electronic Jihad
By E. Alshech*
To view this Special Dispatch in HTML, visit:
http://www.memri.org/bin/opener_latest.cgi?ID=IA32907 .
Alongside military jihad, which has been gaining momentum and extracting an
ever growing price from many countries around the globe, Islamists have
been developing a new form of warfare, termed "electronic jihad," which is
waged on the Internet. This new form of jihad was launched in recent years
and is still in its early stages of development. However, as this paper
will show, Islamists are fully aware of its destructive potential, and
persistently strive to realize this potential.
Electronic jihad is a phenomenon whereby mujahideen use the Internet to
wage economic and ideological warfare against their enemies. Unlike other
hackers, those engaged in electronic jihad are united by a common strategy
and ideology which are still in a process of formation. This paper aims to
present the phenomenon of electronic jihad and to characterize some of its
more recent developments. It lays out the basic ideology and motivations of
its perpetrators, describes, as far as possible, its various operational
strategies, and assesses the short- and long-term dangers posed by this
relatively new phenomenon. The paper focuses on electronic jihad waged by
organized Islamist groups that mobilize large numbers of hackers around the
world to attack servers and websites owned by those whom they regard as
their enemies.
Organized Electronic Jihad
In the past few years Islamist websites have provided ample evidence that
Islamist hackers do not operate as isolated individuals, but carry out
coordinated attacks against websites belonging to those whom they regard as
their enemies.(1) As evident from numerous postings on the Islamist
websites, many of these coordinated attacks are organized by groups devoted
to electronic jihad. Six prominent groups of this sort have emerged on the
Internet over the past few years:(2) Hackboy,(3) Ansar Al-Jihad Lil-Jihad
Al-Electroni,(4) Munazamat Fursan Al-Jihad Al-Electroni,(5) Majmu'at
Al-Jihad Al-Electroni,(6) Majma' Al-Haker Al-Muslim, and Inhiyar
Al-Dolar.(7) All these groups, with the exception of Munazamat Fursan
Al-Jihad and Inhiyar al-Dolar, have websites of their own through which
they recruit volunteers to take part in electronic attacks,(8) maintain
contacts with others who engage in electronic jihad, coordinate their
attacks, and enable their members to chat with one another anonymously. The
Majmu'at Al-Jihad Al-Electroni website, for example, includes the following
sections: A document explaining the nature of electronic jihad, a section
devoted to electronic jihad strategy, a technical section on software used
for electronic attacks, a section describing previous attacks and their
results, and various appeals to Muslims, mujahideen, and hackers worldwide.
A more recent indication of the increasingly organized nature of electronic
jihad is an initiative launched January 3, 2007 on Islamist websites:
mujahideen operating on the Internet (and in the media in general) were
invited to sign a special pact called "Hilf Al-Muhajirin" ("Pact of the
Immigrants").(9) In it, they agree "to stand united under the banner of the
Muhajirun Brigades in order to promote [cyber-warfare]," and "to pledge
allegiance to the leader [of the Muhajirun Brigades]." They vow to "obey
[the leader] in [all tasks], pleasant or unpleasant, not to contest [his]
leadership, to exert every conceivable effort in [waging] media jihad...
[and to persist] in attacking those websites which do harm to Islam and to
the Muslims..."(10) This initiative clearly indicates that the Islamist
hackers no longer regard themselves as loosely connected individual
activists, but as dedicated soldiers who are bound by a pact and committed
to a joint ideological mission.
The Ideology and Ethical Boundaries of Electronic Jihad
Mission statements posted on the websites of electronic jihad groups reveal
that just like the mujahideen on the military front, the mujahideen
operating on the Internet are motivated by profound ideological conviction.
They despise hackers who "engage in purposeless and meaningless
sabotage"(11) or are motivated by desire for publicity or by any other
worldly objective. They perceive themselves as jihad-fighters who assist
Islam and promote tawhid (Monotheism) via the Internet.(12) More
importantly, they view cyberspace as a virtual battlefield in which the
mujahideen can effectively defeat the West.
That the mujahideen operating in cyberspace are motivated by ideology, in
contrast to many hackers, is illustrated by the following example.
Recently, a participant on an Islamist forum posted instructions for
breaking into a UK-based commercial website and stealing the customers'
credit card information in order to inflict financial damage on the
"unbelievers" (i.e. on the non-Muslims customers and retailers). His
initiative sparked a fierce debate among the forum participants, the
dominant opinion being that this initiative falls outside the boundaries of
legitimate cyber-jihad. One forum participant wrote: "Oh brother, we do not
steal... We attack racist, American and Shi'ite [websites] and all corrupt
websites." Another participant reminded the forum members that stealing
from unbelievers is forbidden.(13)
TO view an image from Muslim Hackerz website visit:
http://www.memri.org/bin/opener_latest.cgi?ID=IA32907
The Objectives of Electronic Jihad
One objective of electronic jihad which is frequently evoked by the
mujahideen is assisting Islam by attacking websites that slander Islam or
launch attacks against Islamic websites, or by attacking websites that
interfere with the goal of rendering Islam supreme (e.g. Christian
websites). More recently, however, the mujahideen have begun to cite
additional objectives: avenging the death of Muslim martyrs and the
suffering of Muslims worldwide (including imprisoned jihad fighters);
inflicting damage on Western economy; affecting the morale of the West; and
even bringing about the total collapse of the West.
The following excerpts from Arabic messages posted by Islamist hackers
exemplify each of these objectives.
Eliminating Websites That Harm Islam
"The administration wishes to inform you of the following so that you
understand our operational methods and our jihad strategy. My brothers, our
operational methods are not only to assault... and target any website that
stands in the way of our victory... We are indeed victorious when we
disable such [harmful] websites, but the matter is not so simple. We
target... websites that wage intensive war [against us]... We target them
because they are the foremost enemies of jihad in cyberspace; their
existence threatens Islamic and religious websites throughout the
Internet..."(14)
Avenging the Death of Martyrs and the Suffering of Muslims and Imprisoned
Mujahideen Worldwide
"We shall say to the Crusaders and their followers: We take an oath to
avenge the martyrs' blood and the weeping of Muslim mothers and children.
The Worshipers of the Cross and their followers have already been warned
that their websites may be broken into and destroyed. We must not forget
our leaders, our mujahideen, our people and our children who were martyred
in Palestine, Iraq, Afghanistan, Chechnya and in other places. We shall
take revenge upon you, O Zionists and Worshippers of the Cross. We shall
never rest or forget what you did to us. [There are only two options] in
electronic jihad for the sake of Allah: Victory or death.
We dedicate these [operations of] hacking [into enemy websites] to the
martyr and jihad-fighter sheikh Abu Mus'ab Al-Zarqawi, to the jihad-fighter
Sheikh Osama bin Laden, to the imprisoned fighter of electronic jihad
Irhabi 007, to the fighter of electronic jihad Muhibb Al-Shaykhan and to
all the mujahideen for the sake of Allah..."(15)
Inflicting Economic Damage on the West and Damaging its Morale
"Allah has commanded us in various Koranic verses to wage war against the
unbelievers... Electronic jihad utilizes methods and means which inflict
great material damage on the enemy and [which also] lower his morale and
his spirits via the Internet. The methods of [hacking] have been revealed
[to us] by expert [hackers] on the Internet and networks... many of whom
engage in purposeless and meaningless sabotage. These lethal methods will
be harnessed [for use] against our enemies, so as to inflict the greatest
[possible] financial damage [upon them] which can amount to millions
and [in order] to damage [their] morale, so that [they] will be afraid of
the Muslims wherever they go and even when they are surfing the Web."(16)
Bringing About the Total Collapse of the West
"I have examined most of the material [available] in hacking manuals but
have not found articles which discuss... how to disable all the
[electronic] networks around the world. I found various articles which
discuss how to attack websites, e-mails, servers, etc., but I have not read
anything about harming or blocking the networks around the world, even
though this is one of the most important topics for a hacker and for anyone
who engages in electronic jihad. Such [an attack] will cripple the West
completely. I am not talking about attacking websites or [even] the
Internet [as a whole], but [about attacking] all the [computer] networks
around the world including military networks, and [networks] which control
radars, missiles and communications around the world... If all these
networks stop [functioning even] for a single day... it will bring about
the total collapse of the West... while affecting our interests only
slightly. The collapse of the West will bring about the breakdown of world
economy and of the stock markets, which depend on [electronic]
communication [for] their activities, [e.g.] transfers of assets and
shares. [Such an attack] will cause the capitalist West to collapse.
Actual Attacks and Their Effects
Reports on Islamist websites indicate that most of the hacking operations
carried out by mujahideen have been aimed at three types of websites:
a) Ideological websites which promote beliefs, doctrines and ideologies
which the mujahideen perceive as incompatible with Sunni Islam, such as
Christianity, Shi'ism and Zionism.(17)
b) Websites which the mujahideen perceive as defamatory or harmful to
Islam. Many of these are private blogs, news blogs and non-Islamic forums
(e.g., http://answering-islam.org.uk ).(18)
c) Websites which promote behavior that is contrary to the mujahideen's
religious worldview (e.g., http://www.nscrush.org/news/journal, a website
associated with a girls' sports team).
As for websites associated with governments, defense systems, and Western
economic interests Islamist websites present little or no evidence that
mujahideen have actually attacked them. There is, however, sufficient
evidence to suggest that such sensitive targets continue to be of intense
interest to the mujahideen. For example, an Islamist forum recently
conducted a survey among its participants regarding the targets they would
like to attack. Among the targets suggested were Western financial websites
and websites associated with the FBI and CIA.(19) Moreover, in September
2006, an Islamic website posted a long list of IP addresses allegedly
associated with key governmental defense institutions in the West,
including "the Army Ballistics Research Laboratory," "the Army Armament
Research Development and Engineering Center," "the Navy Computers and
Telecommunications Station," "the National Space Development Agency of
Japan," and others.(20) The title of the message indicates that the list is
meant for use in electronic attacks.
Another message, posted on an Islamist website on December 5, 2006, stated
that Islamist hackers had cancelled a planned attack, nicknamed "The
Electronic Guantanamo Raid," against American banks. The posting explained
that the attack had been cancelled because the banks had been warned about
the attack by American media and government agencies. It stated further
that the panic in the media shows how important it is "to focus on
attacking sensitive economic American websites [instead of] other
[websites, like those that offend Islam]..." The writer added: "If [we]
attack websites associated with the stock[market] and with banks, disabling
them for a few days or even for a few hours, it will cause millions of
dollars' worth of damage... I [therefore] call upon all members [of this
forum] to focus on these websites and to urge all Muslims who are able to
participate in this [type of] Islamic Intifada to attack websites
associated with the American stock[market] and banks..."(21)
Attack Strategies
Postings on Islamist websites reveal that the cyberspace mujahideen favor
two main strategies. The first is to paralyze sites by "swarming", i.e.,
flooding them with hits and thus creating a traffic overload. When traffic
to the site exceeds the website's or server's capacity, the site is blocked
to additional users, and in some cases it even crashes. The second strategy
is called "ping attack": special programs are used to flood a website with
thousands of e-mails, sometimes containing viruses, thus clogging the
website and infecting it.(22) The programs utilized by mujahideen in these
attacks are either programs available to the hacker community at large (see
image below) or programs created especially for Islamist hackers (see
images below).(23)
To view a program used by the general hacker's community visit:
http://www.memri.org/bin/opener_latest.cgi?ID=IA32907
To view programs created by Islamists visit:
http://www.memri.org/bin/opener_latest.cgi?ID=IA32907
Reports posted by the mujahideen after attacks on websites indicate that
these cyber-assaults affect the websites only temporarily, if at all. In
many cases the mujahideen themselves admit that their attack was
ineffective (24) and that the website returned to normal functioning only
minutes or hours after the attack.(25) In light of this, the mujhahideen
often resort to another method in an attempt to completely eliminate the
targeted site. An Islamist hacker explained the method as follows: "We
contact... the server [which hosts the target website] before and after the
assault, and threaten [the server admin] until they shut down the target
website. [In such cases], the 'host' [i.e., server] is usually forced to
shut down the website. The battle continues until the enemy declares: 'I
surrender.'"(26)
Islamist websites present very little evidence of more sophisticated
attacks utilizing actual hacking techniques (i.e., obtaining the admin
password and using admin privileges to corrupt data or damage the server
itself). However, two examples do indicate that the cyberspace mujahideen
may possess the capability to carry out such attacks.(27) On October 17,
2006, an Islamist website posted a message(28) containing a link to what
appeared to be live pictures of Anchorage International Airport taken by
the airport's security cameras. There was also a link to an admin control
program allowing surfers to control the airport's security cameras. If
this was an authentic break-in, it indicates that Muslim hackers are
capable of hacking even into highly secure servers.
Another example which illustrates the extent of the mujahideen's hacking
skills is the story of 22-year-old Younis Tsouli from West London, better
know as Irhabi 007, who was arrested in 2005 by Scotland Yard. In his short
but rich hacking career, Irahbi 007 wrote a hacking manual for mujahideen,
instructed Islamist hackers online, and broke into servers of American
universities, using them to upload shared files containing jihad-related
materials.(29)
To view an image taken from the Ansar Al-Jihad website visit:
http://www.memri.org/bin/opener_latest.cgi?ID=IA32907
Coordination of Attacks
Islamist websites provide extensive evidence that Islamist cyber-attacks
are not random initiatives by individual mujahideen, but are steadily
becoming more coordinated. Firstly, announcements of imminent attacks,
which appear almost daily, are posted on numerous sites simultaneously.
Participants are instructed to look out for postings specifying the time of
attack, the URL of the target (usually posted some 30 minutes before the
attack itself) and the program to be used for carrying out the attack.
Secondly, before the attacks, websites have lately begun to post messages
addressed to specific individuals referred to as "attack coordinators,"
each of whom is associated with a specific Islamist site. Finally, there is
a significant increase in response to the calls for participation in
electronic attacks. Recently, for example, a message announcing an attack
on a Shi'ite website received 15,000 hits, and approximately 3,000 forum
members responded to the message.(30) The attacks, then, seem to be
well-organized and supervised by a network of specially appointed
individuals on various sites, and they appear to generate high
participation level among forum members.
The following three examples demonstrate the coordinated nature of the attacks.
Instructions for Attack Coordinators
On December 21, 2006, the Al-Muhajirun website posted the following message
regarding a planned attack: "Our attack will take place this coming
Friday... I remind you that the name of the program to be used will not be
posted until half an hour to an hour before the attack... Attack
coordinators, you worked hard last week... and I ask you to display the
same zeal in this [upcoming] attack. I ask [each] individual who intends to
serve as attack coordinator on [his] website to reply [to this posting with
the message]: "I will be the attack coordinator for this network..." [The
coordinator] will be responsible for the following: ...urging forum
participants [to take part in the attack], while [taking care] not to
mention names of 'Hilf Al-Muhajirin' members and the names of those who
take part in the attack... [The coordinators] must be online at least one
full hour before the attack... in order to post links to the programs that
will be used and to the [intended target] websites. [They are also]
responsible for posting the code-name of the attack, along with the text
shown below [which presents some general information about the attack]...
"(31)
Announcement of a Ping Attack Against a Website That Harms Islam
The following message was posted November 23, 2006 on the website Majmu'at
Al-Jihad Al-Electroni: "...An attack is about to be carried out by all the
Internet mujahideen, may Allah accept it as jihad for His sake... [The
targets are] websites that do harm to Islam... The attacks will take place
on Saturday, Monday, and Thursday, between 6:00 P.M. and 10:00 P.M., Mecca
time, or between 5:00 P.M. and 9:00 P.M. Jerusalem time... The primary
[computer] program to be used is Al-Jihad Al-Electroni 1.5... We have been
able to create a better version of the [program]... and eliminate most of
the problems that were encountered by members [in the past]. [The new
version] is much lighter and is capable of producing a much more powerful
attack..."(32)
A General Call to Participate in a Virus Attack
"This action is a rapid [response] to [a website] that has annoyed us. This
is war... Who is with me and who is against me? Allah is with me... and the
Crusader Jew and his followers... are against me. I have... uploaded three
viruses and a file which can disable firewalls. I will inform you of the
time of the attacks... Whoever wishes to participate in the raid should
download the virus he wishes to use and [then] send it [to the target]... I
ask that before you do anything on the Internet... my mujahid brother,
[please] place your trust in Allah."(33)
To view a site infected with virus by Islamist hackers visit:
http://www.memri.org/bin/opener_latest.cgi?ID=IA32907
Electronic Jihad: A Nuisance or a Real Threat?
The evidence presented here shows that electronic jihad is a form of
cyber-warfare with ideological underpinnings and defined goals, which
manifests in well-coordinated cyber-attacks. Examination of the websites
reveals that the Islamist hackers maintain constant communication among
themselves, share software and expertise and conduct debates on strategy
and legitimate targets. There is also evidence of increasingly efficient
coordination of attacks. The mujahideen's own statements show that they
mean to position themselves as a formidable electronic attack force which
is capable of inflicting severe damage greater even than the damage
caused by conventional terrorist attacks.
At the same time, however, the information presented here reveals a
significant gap between the mujahideen's aspirations and their actual
capabilities. Despite their self-proclaimed intention to target key
economic and government systems and websites in order to bring about a
total economic collapse of the West, Islamist websites provide no evidence
that such targets have indeed been attacked. In actuality, most of the
attacks documented on Islamist websites were aimed at sites that are seen
by the mujahideen as morally corrupt or offensive to Islam. In addition,
most of the attacks were carried out using unsophisticated methods which
are not very likely to pose a significant threat to Western economic
interests or sensitive infrastructure. In this respect, electronic jihad
can still be seen, at least present, as a nuisance rather than a serious
threat.
Nevertheless, it is important not underestimate the potential danger posed
by this phenomenon. First, as shown above, at least two examples indicate
that the mujahideen are already capable of compromising servers, even
highly secure ones. Given the increasing communication and the constant
sharing of expertise among Islamist hackers,(34) the gap between their
goals and their actual capabilities is bound to narrow down. In other
words, the mujahideen's persistent pursuit of expertise in the area of
hacking, as reflected in numerous website postings, may eventually enable
them to compromise Western websites of a highly sensitive nature.
Second, past experience has shown that even primitive attacks, which do not
damage servers, can cause substantial financial damage. For example, after
a midair collision between a Chinese fighter jet and an American spy plane
on April 1, 2001, Chinese hackers spread a malicious "worm," known as the
"Code Red Worm," which infected about a million U.S. servers in July 2001
and caused some $2.6 billion worth of damage to computer hardware,
software, and networks.(35) On another occasion, a ping attack against the
retail giants Yahoo, eBay, and Amazon in February 2000 was estimated to
have caused Yahoo alone a loss of $500,000 due a decrease in hits during
the attack.(36)
In conclusion, electronic jihad, in its current state of development, is
capable of causing some moderate damage to Western economy, but there is no
indication that it constitutes an immediate threat to more sensitive
interests such as defense systems and other crucial infrastructure.
Nevertheless, in light of the rapid evolvement of this phenomenon,
especially during the recent months, the Western countries should monitor
it closely in order to track the changes in its modes of operation and the
steady increase in its sophistication.
*Dr. Alshech is MEMRI's Director of the Jihad and Terrorism Studies Project.
Endnotes:
(1) For early examples of coordinated attacks, see
www.3asfh.net/vb/showthread.php?t=18162. See also the following
IslamOnline.net article from 2002 about a coordinated attack carried out by
mujahideen against a Hebrew newspaper
www.islamonline.net/Arabic/science/200205/Article01.shtml . I am indebted
to Y. Yehoshua for these references.
(2) Some electronic Jihad groups, such as
http://groups.msn.com/falastinhorra, are no longer active.
(4) http://www.al-ansar.150m.com/.
(5) The Islamist website Al-Firdaws announced the establishment of this
group (http://www.alfirdaws.org/vb/showthread.php?t=9944) but, to our
knowledge, it has not launched its own website.
(6) http://www.al-jinan.org. The group's self-proclaimed title is "Jihad
Electroni: The Group Which Specializes in Attacking Israeli Websites and
[Websites] Harmful to Islam."
(7) http://www.mslamh.jeeran.com/.
(8) Electronic jihad groups also use the general Islamist forums to recruit
participants for their enterprises.
(9) The name "Hilf Al-Muhajirin" is presumably derived from the name of the
forum which launched the initiative (www.mohajroon.com) and/or from the
historical "Hilf Al-Muhajirin" pact which, according to Muslim tradition,
was undertaken by the people who migrated with the Prophet Muhammad from
Mecca to Medina in 622 CE.
(10) http://208.64.27.42/~taliban/vb/showthread.php?t=40391. It is
noteworthy that the wording of the pledge of allegiance to the leader bears
a strong resemblance to the wording that appears in various versions of the
historical pledge of allegiance between the early Muslims and the Prophet
Muhammad.
(11) http://www.al-jinan.org/jihad.htm.
(12) http://alfirdaws.org/vb/showthread.php?t=9944.
(13) This participant cited expatriate Syrian Salafi sheikh Abu Basir
Al-Tartusi, who holds that, unlike a Muslim who invades the abode of
unbelievers, a Muslim who dwells there and is granted protection (aman) by
unbelievers must not steal property from the non-Muslims dwelling in this
abode.
See http://www.altartosi.com/book/book03/index.html.
(14) http://www.al-jinan.org.
(15) http://www.al-ansar.150m.com/8.htm.
(16) http://www.al-jinan.org/jihad.htm; see also
http://www.al-ekhlaas.net/forum/showthread.php?t=35424 .
(17) E.g., www.meca-me.org; http://www.mecalove4all.com/main.php,
http://www.islameyat.com/.
(18) See MEMRI Special Dispatch No. 1330, "Islamist Website Calls to
Disable German Websites Offensive to Islam," October 20, 2006,
http://memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=subjects&Area=iwmp&ID=SP133006.
See also the forum at http://www.al-boraq.com/showthread.php?t=13896, in
which a participant calls upon electronic jihadists to disable a site that
defames the Koran in his opinion.
(19) http://www.mohajroon.com/vb/showthread.php?t=38360.
(20) http://www.alnusra.net/vb/showthread.php?t=6946.
(21) http://alfirdaws.org/vb/showthread.php?t=21318 .
(22) For examples of the mujhideen's use of viruses, see
http://www.mohajroon.com/vb/showthread.php?t=21629;
http://www.abualbokhary.info/vb3/showthread.php?t=13173.
(23) For the programs most frequently used by the mujahideen, see
http://www.al-ansar.150m.com/5.htm.
(24) http://www.mohajroon.com/vb/showthread.php?t=38447.
(25) http://www.al-ansar.150m.com/3.htm.
(26) http://www.al-jinan.org/strategy.htm .
(27) http://alfirdaws.org/vb/showthread.php?t=18266.
(28) See MEMRI Special Report No. 1326, "Islamist Websites Monitor No. 9 -
Mujahideen Gather Information on Anchorage International Airport," October
18, 2006,
http://memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=subjects&Area=iwmp&ID=SP132606.
(29) For more information on Irhabi 007's activities and arrest, see:
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/03/25/AR2006032500020.html.
Note, however, that hacking a database for the sake of corrupting or
stealing data requires greater technical expertise than hacking for the
sake of uploading files or defacing a website's front page.
(30) http://www.mohajroon.com/vb/showthread.php?t=42442 .
(31) http://www.mohajroon.com/vb/showthread.php?t=38694.
(32) http://www.elshouraa.ws/vb/showthread.php?t=2635.
(33) http://www.abualbokhary.info/vb3/showthread.php?t=13173. For another
example of the mujahideen's use of virus, see
http://www.mohajroon.com/vb/showthread.php?t=21629.
(34) For examples of mujahideen sharing information and expertise on
computer hacking, see
http://www.al-ekhlaas.net/forum/showthread.php?t=27154;
http://www.al-ekhlaas.net/forum/showthread.php?t=20305;
http://www.al-ekhlaas.net/forum/showthread.php?t=3468;
http://www.al-ekhlaas.net/forum/showthread.php?t=34679;
http://www.abualbokhary.info/vb3/showthread.php?t=19813&highlight=%E6%D5%ED%C9.
(35) Gabriel Weimann, Terror on the Internet (Washington, 2006), pp. 156-157.
(36) http://www.cis.udel.edu/~sunshine/courses/F06/CIS664/class12.pdf;
http://archives.cnn.com/2000/TECH/computing/02/09/cyber.attacks.01/index.html.
*********************
The Middle East Media Research Institute (MEMRI) is an independent,
non-profit organization that translates and analyzes the media of the
Middle East. Copies of articles and documents cited, as well as background
information, are available on request.
MEMRI holds copyrights on all translations. Materials may only be used with
proper attribution.
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